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We present new stable oxygen and carbon isotope composite records (δ¹⁸O, δ¹³C) of speleothems from Sandkraal Cave 1 (SK1) on the South African south coast for the time interval between 104 and 18 ka (with a hiatus between 48 and 41 ka). Statistical comparisons using kernel-based correlation analyses and semblance analyses based on continuous wavelet transforms inform the relationships of the new speleothem records to other proxies and their changes through time. Between 105 and ~70 ka, changes of speleothem δ¹⁸O values at SK1 are likely related to rainfall seasonality. Variations of δ¹³C values are associated with changes of vegetation density, prior carbonate precipitation (PCP), CO₂degassing in the cave, and possibly variations of the abundance of C₃and C₄grasses in the vegetation. The relationships of δ¹⁸O with other proxies shift between ~70 and 48 ka (Marine Isotope Stages 4–3) so that both stable isotope records now reflect CO₂degassing, evaporation, and PCP. Similar relationships also continue after the hiatus for the deposition phase between 42 and 18 ka. Our findings support modeling results suggesting drier conditions in the study area when the Southern Hemisphere westerlies are shifted north and the paleo–Agulhas Plain is exposed.

One of the primary goals of the palaeosciences is to produce robust understandings of palaeoecologies of extinct ecosystems. The time has arrived where such palaeoecologies can be significantly improved—agent-based models (ABMs) that synthesize our modern understandings of animal ecology with past conditions provide a unique opportunity for this. The Palaeo-Agulhas Plain (PAP), a now submerged landscape off the south coast of South Africa, formed a novel ecosystem during the lower sea levels of the Pleistocene. Here we provide a review of the utility of ABMs for understanding herbivores in prehistoric environments using the Paleoscape Model. The Paleoscape Model is fortunate to have features models of climate, geology and vegetation upon which we can understand how herbivores used the PAP environment. To incorporate aspects of herbivore behaviour and habitat suitability into the model requires analogies from extant systems. In addition to reconstructions of the availability of resources and associated risks, data on herbivore behaviour and physiology are imperative to our understanding of these systems. Behaviour, driven by changes in the environment, is interpreted by species, leading to selection of suitable habitats ultimately driving the herbivore’s decisions within ABMs. Finally, we discuss herbivore integration into these models that can be used in numerous other scenarios (past, present and future).